DYES AND DYE MATERIALS

DYES AND DYES

1. INTRODUCTION

Man has benefited from his environment since ancient times and tried to beautify and protect him. Due to its instinct for ornamentation, it has obtained many dyes and dyes from nature. It is possible to see this even during the stone age. The paintings on the walls of the cave in France and Spain, hundreds of years before Christ, are proof of them. It is very interesting that the dead bones found here are colored red. It is believed that this color came from the iron oxide applied on the body as a religious tradition.

The first dyes used are metal oxide mix, clay soil and some plant sap. It is believed that these are mixed with water and applied to the place to be painted. Ancient Egyptians mixed gum to give paints strength and shine. This type of paint was found in corn mummies.

Natural dyeing is a dyeing process using dyestuffs in various plants and insects provided in nature. Natural dyeing, which started 5000 - 6000 years ago, continued unchanged in 1856 by William Henry Perkin until the first synthetic dyestuff was found. XIX. In the second half of the century, while new dyestuffs were found, on the other hand, the synthesis of dyestuffs in plants took place. Synthesis of dyes in large quantities and cheaply XIX. At the end of the century, it largely eliminated natural painting.

Permanent coloring of a textile material is called dyeing, and coloring substances are called dyestuff. Dyestuff occurs as a result of migration of dyestuffs into the textile material in the dyestuff solution. People have been dyeing natural fiber wool and cotton since the early ages of history. The dyestuffs used are obtained from plants, animals and soil. The oldest known dyestuffs are alizarin from indigoi rubia tinotoium from indigofera plants, chromium yellow from a soil, schweifurt green ginger, etc. d.

With Perkin synthesizing Movein, the first synthetic dyestuff in 1856, the production of synthetic dyestuffs began and increased rapidly, so the use of natural dyestuffs began to decline drastically. Alizarin, the basic dyestuff of the color, was synthesized by Grabe and Liberman in 1868. Today, synthetic dyes are mainly used, but natural dyes are still used in handicrafts such as carpets, rugs and writing.

1.1. Paint and Dyestuff

Coloring of objects is expressed in the word painting. The substances used in the colored of the objects to protect the surface from external effects or to provide a beautiful appearance are called PAINT. In the spoken language, we often use the words paint and dyestuff interchangeably. These two words are not synonymous. The dyes are mixtures that are mixed but not dissolved with a binder. Paint is applied with brush or paint guns, along with oil drying on a surface. The painted surface is covered with a fairly thick new layer with the drying of the oil. This process is not actually a painting, but a covering. Artist, painter, and painters benefit from the word paint. Generally, the paints are inorganic in nature. However, they can also have an organic structure. They do not make any changes on the surface they are applied to. They can be removed from the surface in large pieces by scraping.

The substances applied to make objects (fabric, fiber) colored are called DYEING. However, not every color giving or colored substance is a dye. Coloring with dyes is not similar to coloring with dyes. They are usually applied in solutions or suspensions by various staining methods. All dyestuffs are organic compounds. The objects to be painted combine with the dyestuff continuously and durable and change the surface of the body in terms of structure. Generally, the dyestuff is united by entering into a chemical or physicochemical relationship with the surface of the body. The painted surface cannot get its original colorless state by physical processes such as scraping, wiping, washing.

1.2. Colorness in Color and Dyestuffs

Color, which is one of the subjective concepts such as pain, sweet, sour, cold, is defined as the effect caused by an object or light source on our eyes. However, this definition is very limited and depends on some physical and psychological events. For example, the color of a white object is seen in brightness or white by candlelight at night. But in fact, the color of the candlelight object is not white, compared to physical measurements, it carries the yellowish color of the candle flame.

The electromagnetic waves around us are available in various sizes, from cosmic rays of 10-15 m wavelength to radio waves of 104 m wavelength. The electromagnetic wave zone that we perceive with our eyes called light is a very narrow field. This region, where our eyes are sensitive, has a wavelength of 400-750 nm. The region between 800nm ​​and 1000nm is called ultraviolet. It covers ultraviolet rays as well as visible rays with the rays coming from the sun.

If an object reflects all the light falling on it, it appears white to the eye. In contrast, the body is black if it absorbs all the incoming light and does not reflect at all. If the object absorbs some light or rays of a certain wavelength from the white light falling on it, the rest of the white light is reflected, and this appears in a color that depends on the wavelength of the reflected lights. There are such colors in the spectrum with a certain wavelength that when we mix these wavelength lights with each other, white light is obtained. These colors are called KOMLEMENTER colors. For example, blue light and yellow light are complementary. If absorbed yellow from white light, blue color is seen. The color of the objects absorbed from sunlight according to their wavelengths are given in the table.

Table 1. Light absorption and visible color of objects

Absorbed Light Wavelength (nm) Color Apparent color of the object

400-500 Violet Yellowish green

440-480 Blue Yellow

480-490 Greenish blue Orange

490-500 Bluish green Red

500-560 green Purple

560-580 Yellowish green Violet

580-595 yellow Blue

595-605 orange Greenish blue

605-750 red Bluish green

With spectroscopic examinations, it was observed that all objects absorb radiation. The lower the absorbed energy, the larger the wavelength. Energy bonds at low p b to g. In the molecule p be the number of G increases, energy is further reduced, facilitating the slippage area visible.

As a result, we can say that the color in organic dyes depends on the presence of chromophore-oxychrome groups and the number of conjugated double bonds.

1.3. Comparison of Natural and Synthetic Dyes

1.3.1. Positive aspects of natural dyes

1. The fastness values ​​of some of the natural dyes are quite good and have remained intact until our time. Others have very low fastness.

2. The degree of fading of natural dyes is generally such that it does not spoil the harmony of other colors.

3. As it is obtained from natural materials, dyestuff cost is cheaper. For this reason, it is applied especially in rural areas where the labor potential is high and handicrafts are common.

1.3.2. Negative aspects of natural dyes

1. The absence of plants that give all the desired colors in a certain rural area is a problem in terms of dyeing.

2. It is not possible to obtain the plants in twelve months of the year. Plants can be collected only in spring-summer periods when they bloom.

3. Limited colors such as yellow, red and brown are obtained mostly with natural dyes. Although intermediate colors are obtained with mixtures of these colors, the color scale is quite narrow.

4. Since the dyestuffs contained in the plant change according to the climatic conditions, the type of soil, the season it is collected, the age, it is not possible to obtain the desired color at all times.

5. A large amount of natural dyestuff is required for dyeing. However, the same color intensity can be achieved in very small amounts with synthetic dyes.

6. Considering the fabricated dyeing, the large agricultural area costs a lot due to the reasons such as rural collection, transportation, storage cost, and dyestuff extraction.

7. Some painting processes, such as 'Turkish Red painting', require quite a long time.

8. The presence of substances such as tannins, cellulose coming from the plant other than dyestuff in the environment affects the color and makes the painting process difficult.

Positive aspects of synthetic dyes

1. The color variety is very rich.

1. It is possible to obtain the same color when the same conditions are applied.

2. The colors are bright.

3. The painting process is very short.

4. It is always possible to supply the desired amount.

5. In addition to those with very good fastness values, they are available in low ones.

6. As it is generally water-soluble substances, it stains the fiber more easily.

Negative aspects of synthetic dyes

1. When working with dyestuffs with low fastness value, fading occurs and these fading distorts color harmony with other regions. When working with dyestuffs with high fastness values, no fading occurs.

2. It is more expensive for rural areas than natural dyes.

1.5. Dyestuffs Pigments

Inorganic dyes used in the manufacture of various paints due to their colors are called pigments. The colored substances used as pigment in dyeing can be natural or artificial, inorganic, organic or a mixture of bALLS belonging to both classes. Pigments should have the following properties.

1. Insoluble in water

2. Not to be damaged by light and atmospheric effects

3. Insoluble or less soluble in oils

4. To provide the possibility of covering and covering, that is, covering.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

2.1. Natural Organic Dyes

Organic dyes of the plant and animal kingdom have been used in fabric dyeing for hundreds of years. However, due to the fact that synthetic organic dyes, which have been available since 70 years, have caught up on the markets, the proportion of using organic dyes has decreased considerably. It is buckwheat tree paint that still maintains its importance.

Blue dyes: Indigo, indigo, herbal indigo: Of course indigo is a fabric dye that has been used since ancient times. Windings dyed with indigo blue were found in ancient Egyptian mummies. Its source is around Bengal and Madras in eastern India. Idigofera tinctorian, a tropical plant, is present in an index of 0.2-0.8%, especially in the leaves. Indikan is a glucoside of indoxil.

Humpback tree: found in Central America. It is dark red in color and smells of garlic. This wood contains hematoxylin C16H14O6. It is a colorless substance in hydroquinone character. It easily oxidizes and forms the body of hematein C6H12O6, which dissolves in alkalis in dark blue red. It gives blue precipitate with hematein alumin, black precipitate with iron and chromium salts. In dyeing, rape wood has more or less hematemins in the extract along with hematoxylin. Silk is used in fur dyeing.

Red paints: Red tree, Brazilian wood: It is one of the cesalpineye firewood grown in Brazil. These woods contain colorless brazil C16H14O5 substance. This substance is chemically very similar to hematoxylin; it dissolves in alkalis in red color, oxidized as brazilian C6H12O5 in air contact. It forms a bluish red with alumin and a gray brown with chrome.

Algae dyes: There are dyes in algae such as Roccela tinctoria and Lecanora tartarea, which grow on the Mediterranean beaches and canary islands. The erythrin acid C20H22O10 in these algae decomposes in the treatment with bases to form the erythrin acid C20H22 (OH) 4, orsellinaside C6H2 (CH3) (OH) 2 COOH and orsin C6H3 (CH3) (OH) 2.

Litmus: When the same algae are treated with potassium carbonate and ammonia, they form litmus paint when left under the influence of air. Litmus is a red acid that forms blue salts with alkalis. It is used as an indicator in chemistry.

Persio: A dye obtained from Scottish algae.

Saflor: Carthamus tinctorius are dried flower petals. It contains cartamine C21H22O11; it paints in rose color. It used to be used for dyeing silk. It is sensitive to light.

Alkanna: Contains C17H18O5 alkanine that stains red. It melts in oils, persists against light. It is widely used for dyeing oils, ointments, waxes and hair.

Red Kosenil: Kosenil, which was a very valuable wool dye, was obtained from the animal kingdom. It is extracted from insects living on the red plant. Powdered insects are used for painting. It gives red colored compounds with water.

Yellow dyes: yellow wood, yellow Brazilian wood: It contains C15H10O7 in its composition. It forms a yellow colored lacquer with alumin. Used to dye wool yellow.

Algebra (yellow mint): It is the fruit of the plant named Rhanus aleternus.

Yellow oak: They are the bark of Quercus tinctoria oak found in North America. It has C21H22O12 in its composition.

Saffron: Contains dye called crocus. Crocin is a glucoside from Polyen class. It is used for dyeing nutrients such as butter, sugar and turmeric.

Hind yellow, puree: found in East India. It is very valuable as a light-resistant yellow painter paint.

Chlorophyll, leaf green: Chlorophyll a) C55H72O5N4Mg and chlorophyll b) C55H70O6N4Mg. Both are from pyrrole derivatives. It is used for painting canned foods, liqueurs and oils.

2.2. Artificial organic dyes:

Artificial organic paints are also called 'tar paints'. The history of artificial organic dyes begins with the discovery of Runge in 1834 in the coal mining tar, phenol and aniline. Artificial paints have completely replaced natural paints today. Most of these synthetically produced dyes are higher than natural dyes in terms of their resistance to light and not to discolor when they are washed. Thus, new paints are introduced to the market every year, and paints, which were of great importance thirty years ago, leave their places to better ones today.

Synthetic dyes are mostly used in fiber dyeing. It has very different properties against various types of fibers.

In this respect, it is possible to classify artificial paints into six classes.

1. Basic dyes: Most fuchsin are chlorides and salts of dye bases such as methylene blue. They dye animal fibers (wool, silk) in neutral or slightly acetic acid dye, they do not dye cotton. With these dyes, cotton must first be treated with tannin (acid compound), catanol (sulphured phenol) or albumin. They form a water-insoluble compound with dye base during dyeing.

2. Acid dyes: Sodium salts of sulfo acids and carbon acids. Acid dyes dye animal fibers in the acid bath.

3. Salt paints: They are sodium salts of sulfonic acids. Neutral or alkaline salts dye cotton with it.

4.Cube paints: These are the substances that are dyed first after being turned into water-soluble leuko compounds with reducers (zinc powder or hydrosulfite). The lyoco compound thus formed is oxidized in the air to regenerate the original dye (such as indigo) on the fiber. Sulphurous paints also paint on the same principle. Here, sodium sulfide Na2S is formed as the reducer.

5.Lac dyes: Paints that can be fixed on the fiber with the help of mineral lacquers (alloys forming colloid basic salt and easily hydrolysed screeds, iron, chrome salts). Dark colored metal compounds are formed on the fibers (alizarin, anthraquinone dyes).

6. Development paints: These are the paints formed on the fiber first. A chemical classification makes it possible to classify paints in an appropriate manner.

3. CHROMOFOR, OXOCROM, BATOCROM, HYPSOCROM

According to Witt, dyes have certain amino groups in their molecules. These are called 'chromophore' groups. The above structures are from this kind of chromophore groups. However, these groups cannot create paint by themselves. In order to dye the fiber there is also a need for 'oxychrome' groups. Amino group with a light base character or hydroxyl group with a slightly acid character are among such oxychrome groups. Amidoazo benzol is a dyestuff that occurs when the amino group enters the internal structure. Objects that have an aromatic root with chromophore groups in their composition but do not contain oxychrome groups are called 'chromogenic' bodies. Like Azobenzol.

All aromatic bodies have double bonds. It is found in the composition of dyes other than the amino and hydroxyl groups. Such as SO3H, COOH, halogens, alkyl and acyl groups. As a result, a dye must contain the following groups. Chromophore group, an aromatic root, oxychrome groups.

The groups that make the colors darker are called 'batochrome', and the groups that increase the color are called 'hypochrome'. Most artificial paints are poisonous. For this reason, only a small number of artificial dyes can be used in the dyeing of nutrients. Artificial dyes are used for dyeing cellulose, leather, oils and waxes other than fiber.

4. SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC DYES

4.1. Triphenylmethane Paints:

These paints contain Chromogen group. The main substance they derive is triphenylmethane CH (C6H5) 3.

4.2. Rosaniline Dyes:

They are obtained from aniline and homologs.

Fuxin: Aniline in the same amounts; It consists of oxidation of p-toluidine and O-toluidine with nitrobenzole. Fuxin melts in dark red in water and alcohol. Silk and wool dye granulated cotton in red.

Malachite green: Autamin, C17H22N3CI, aniline violet, methyl violet, crystal violet, aniline blue are of this class.

4.3 Phthalic Acid Dyes:

The phthalenes discovered by Baeyer in 1874 are derivatives of triphenylmethane. They are obtained by condensing phthalic anhydride with phenols. The main ingredient is phenol phthalene C20H14O4. The phenol phthalate is obtained by heating three parts of phthalic anhydride with phenol and five parts of concentrated H2SO4 or ZnCl2 at 120 0.

Phenolphthale is the anhydride of chemically Dioxy-Carboxyl-triphenylcarbinol. The alkaline salts of phenoltal are red in color and have a quinoid internal structure. It is used as an indicator in chemistry and analysis. Rhodamines are also among these dyes.

Rhodamine is commercially available as salts with hydrochloric acid. C23H30N2O3 .HCI .Colors silk in beautiful rose red as basic dyestuff. The most preferred is phenylated Rodamine, namely violamine, which has the highest light resistance.

4.4 Azo Dyes:

In their composition, they contain this group as chromogen and two aromatic roots. There are four main types.

4.4.1. Basic and acid azo dyes

4.4.2. Lacquer paints

4.4.3. Direct dyes

4.4.4. Azo dyes formed on the fiber

Azo dyes with metalloxides can form lacquers in their molecules if other hydroxyl, carbonyl or azo groups are in ortho state. For example, as in alizarin yellow R

Azo dyes contain azo group. Monoazo dyes are bonded with two or more aromatic roots once, or dis, tris or polyazo dyes are attached several times.

Methyl orange is obtained by diazotheliating sulfanyl acid and addition of dimethyl aniline.

Methyl orange is used as an indicator in chemistry laboratory.

4.5. Kimimimim Paints

Kimonimins are quinones that contain the following group instead of oxygen atoms.

The first is called Indamin, and the second is called indefenol.

4.6.Azine Paints

In this class of dyes, there is a pinazin ring as chromogen. These dyes are derivatives of the pinazin ring. Different cores may be attached to the ring. The dyestuff acquires its character with the introduction of oxychromic groups, such as OH, NH2, N (CH3) 2, NH, C6H5, which enter the aromatic cores, and alkyl groups bound to both nitrogen nitrogen. Mauein, saffron obtained from oxidation of toluidine aniline, indulin and aniline are among the blacks. Aniline black is a cotton dye that has a great importance in cotton dyeing.

4.7.Oxacin Dyes:

In positive dye ions of oxacins, nitrogen or oxygen atoms are accepted as charge carriers. Oxacins are similar to the saints. Instead of a nitrogen atom of the pyrazine ring, a 4-valued and salt capable oxygen atom has arrived. The oxacin ring may be occupied with the core of benzol or naphthalene.

8.4. Thiazin Dyes:

The thiazine ring is formed by the sulfur atom replacing a nitrogen atom with the pyrazine ring. The most important ones are methylene blue, which is obtained from oxidation of P-aminodimethylaniline with iron-3-Chloride in the presence of H2S.

4.9. Acridine Dyes:

It is found in mining coal tar. The composition of acridine is the following structure.

In acridine dyes, the pyridine core bonded with two nuclei of benzol or naphthalene is characteristic. With condensation, leuco dyes are formed first; with more oxidation, the original dyes are formed. Ring nitrogen is alkylated to increase the range of acridine dyes. For example, CH3 is substituted for H. Thus, acridinium compounds are obtained. This dyestuff class also includes tripaflauvin, which is used as a wound antiseptic and against streptoks. The atebrin used in the struggle of Malaria is also from this class. Rivanol is also from the same class.

4:10. Xanthene Paints: Xanthene composition:

They have characters close to triphenylmethane paints. Pyronine, rhosamine, rhodamine, fluorescent are among these dyes.

4:11. Anthraquinone Dyes:

This group contains dyes that are of great importance in the technique. These paints form very durable paint shades on all types of fibers. The main types of anthraquinone paints are: Alizarin, kinizarin, purpurin, anthracene blue, acid wool dyes, cube dyes, benzontren dyes, anthraquinonimide dyes, anthraquinonacridone dyes. These dyes have two CO group Kinon rings. As in Antrakinon

4.12. Indigo Dyes:

Indigo is the oldest of the known dyes. It has been used in dyeing since ancient times. Windings dyed with indigo blue were found in ancient corn tombs. Of course, the origin of indigo dye is from East India. Indigo was synthetically obtained for the first time by German chemist Baeyer. Obtaining synthetic indigo has hit the trade of indigo naturally. Indigo blue C18H10N2O2, surface is copper red, blue; It is an insoluble substance in water, alcohol, ether and aqueous acids and alkalis. Chloroform, freezing acetic acid, slightly melts in phenol. It melts with sulfuric acid and dissolves easily in the form of sulphate in acetic acid mixture. Indigo white forms water-soluble salts with alkalis. The dye is released from their reaction with acids. The cube, i.e., slightly alkaline indigo white melt paints all kinds of fibers. Indigo is the most important of organic dyes. It is very resistant to light, washing, alkali and acids.

5. INORGANIC DYESTUFFS

5.1. White Paints:

Lead white, basic lead carbonate, 2PbCO3 (OH4) 2, covering and dyeing ability is very good. It is very resistant to light. It has good drying ability in liquid oils. It is very resistant to weather effects. Lead white is poisonous, like all lead compounds. Zinc white, zinc oxide ZnO, covering and dyeing ability is good. It is very resistant to light. Drying ability is also good. Like lead white, it makes zinc soap with fatty acids. It is very resistant to weather effects. It is not poisonous nor does it turn black with sulphurous hydrogen because zinc sulfide is white. Litopon has been recognized since 1875. It is the cheapest white matter for oil paints and consists of a mixture of zinc sulfur and barium sulfate. Covering ability is good, it is resistant to light. In interior and exterior paints, firstly, litopon is applied, and then lead or zinc white is applied on it. It is mostly used for making rubber articles and linoleum. Titan white, titan oxide (TiO2) is a valuable white first obtained in Norway in 1919. Covering and dyeing ability is very good. It is resistant to light. It is not affected by acids and bases. Barium sulfate BaSO4 is divided into two types as natural barium sulfate or precipitated barium sulfate. It is mostly used in watercolors. Since barium sulfate is a chemically neutral substance, it is also suitable for use as a filler. Chalk, calcium carbonate CaCO3, is found in nature in large quantities. It is known as mud, chalk, vienna white and marble white in trade. As watery and glue paint, it is very popular, it is not used as an oil paint since it has a very high covering capability with these substances. Antimony white, antimony oxide SbO6 is a very good covering white paint.

5.2. Red and Yellow Paints:

Zincifre (mercury oxide, HgO) is free in nature. However, the chain used as paint is obtained artificially. Zincifre is no longer used in paint works today. It has high covering capability. Since it is a mercury substance, the chain is poisonous. Minium, Pb3O4, is rather orange red. It is very cheap. It gains a lot of value due to its high covering ability and great effect against corrosion. A vivid orange red, called Paris red, is produced by careful heating of lead white. Minium, as a very well covering oil paint, works in leaded glasses, glazes and oil masses, as it is used to protect iron from rust. It adheres very well to the place where it is painted. Cadmium red is a camini-selene sulfide. Their color varies from orange yellow to burgundy red. It is very resistant to light. It is widely used in painting, enamel industry. Cadmium yellow is in the composition of cadmium sulfide. It has high resistance to light and heat. It is used with oils and glue. Cadmium paints are relatively expensive. An important cadmium dye is cadmium, which consists of a mixture of cadmium sulfate and barium sulfide. Chrome yellow and chrome red are compounds of chrome and lead. Their color varies from canary yellow to orange yellow and eventually to red. Covering ability and dyeing ability are also better in yellow. It is colored Naples yellow, lead antimonate, lemon yellow. It is a much sought after paint. It has high resistance to light and heat. It is used with oils and glue. Cadmium paints are relatively expensive. An important cadmium dye is cadmium, which consists of a mixture of cadmium sulfate and barium sulfide. Chrome yellow and chrome red are compounds of chrome and lead. Their color varies from canary yellow to orange yellow and eventually to red. Covering ability and dyeing ability are also better in yellow. It is colored Naples yellow, lead antimonate, lemon yellow. It is a much sought after paint. It has high resistance to light and heat. It is used with oils and glue. Cadmium paints are relatively expensive. An important cadmium dye is cadmium, which consists of a mixture of cadmium sulfate and barium sulfide. Chrome yellow and chrome red are compounds of chrome and lead. Their color varies from canary yellow to orange yellow and eventually to red. Covering ability and dyeing ability are also better in yellow. It is colored Naples yellow, lead antimonate, lemon yellow. It is a very wanted paint. Their color varies from canary yellow to orange yellow and eventually to red. Covering ability and dyeing ability are also better in yellow. It is colored Naples yellow, lead antimonate, lemon yellow. It is a very wanted paint. Their color varies from canary yellow to orange yellow and eventually to red. Covering ability and dyeing ability are also better in yellow. It is colored Naples yellow, lead antimonate, lemon yellow. It is a very wanted paint.

5.3. Blue and Green Paints:

Bremen blue has a unique blue green color. Dyeing ability is low. Its light resistance is very good, it turns green immediately in oil. It is used as a glue paint in theaters and also in the painting of ship decks. It is in schwanfruit green, its composition is copper arsenite acetate. Cu (CH3CO2) 2. 3Cu (AsO2) is a very bright paint. Toxic. Its light resistance is good. It is used in oil paints. It is used for painting ship decks. It also works for killing pests. The main cobalt dyes are as follows. Cobalt blue (CoO. Al2O3), coelin blue (2CoO. SnO2), cobalt green (CoO. ZnO), cobalt violet (Co3 (PO4) 3). The covering ability of all cobalt paints is medium. It is resistant to light. It is mostly used in painting. Chromium oxide green, Cr2O3 is a pure chrome oxide. It has a blurred olive green color. It has high covering capability. It has good dyeing ability and light resistance. Chromium oxide hydrate green, Cr2O3. 2H2O, dyeing ability is good. It is used in all interior and exterior painting. It is mixed with zinc yellow and made of victorya green.

5.4. Black Paints:

Natural graphite: Natural graphite is mainly used to obtain crucible, etc. in metallurgy. 65-70% of the graphite obtained in the world is used for this purpose. 15% is used in iron casting and 10% is used to obtain electrodes.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF DYEING SUBSTANCES ACCORDING TO THE RESOLUTIONS

6.1. Water Soluble Dyes

The dyestuff molecule contains at least one salt-forming group. If the starting materials used during the synthesis of the dyestuff do not contain a water-solubilizing group, solubility can also be achieved by adding this group to the dyestuff molecule later. However, the preferred method is that the starting materials contain ionic groups in the dye synthesis. Water-soluble dyestuffs are divided into three according to the character of the group that can form salt. a) Anionic water soluble dyestuffs b) Cationic water soluble dyestuffs c) Zwitter ion dyestuffs

6.2. Water Insoluble Dyestuffs

It is possible to separate the water-insoluble dyestuffs used in textile and other fields into various groups.

6.2.1. Dyes that dissolve in the substrate

Dispersion dyestuffs, especially applied on synthetic fiber, are distributed in this class by being dispersed in water as very fine suspensions.

6.2.2. Dyes that dissolve in organic solvents

Dyestuffs in this class are soluble in all kinds of organic solvents. These dyestuffs, also called solvent dyestuffs, can be applied as spray or lacquer. They are used for coloring ink, wax and petroleum products.

6.2.3. Dyestuffs with temporary solubility

After making them water-soluble with various reducing agents, they can be applied to the fiber. Then they are brought up in water insoluble by being oxidized again while in the fiber. Earrings and sulfur dyes are applied according to this principle.

6.2.4. Polycondensation dyes

Dyes that have been developed in recent years and form large molecules that are condensed with each other or with other molecules when applied or applied on the fiber. In these, Inthion dyes form polymer sulfides with sodium sulfide on the fiber.

6.2.5. Dyes created in fiber

Dyestuffs formed by a chemical reaction in the fiber from two separate components fall into this class. These are water-insoluble pigments. Azoic dyes and phthalocyanines fall into this class.

6.2.6. pigments

They are compounds that have no affinity for fibers and other substrates, and are different from dyestuffs. Pigments are applied in oils and resins that are dried in suspension.

7. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PAINTING PROPERTIES

Generally, dye applicators do not look at the chemical structure of the dye, but on what methods they can dye the fiber. Therefore, dyestuffs are classified as follows according to these methods.

7.1. Basic Dyestuffs

It is in the form of hydrides of organic bases and carries the cationic group in colored part. They contain N or S atoms as positive charge carriers. Due to their structure, they are connected with fibers containing anionic group since they act basically. They are mainly used for dyeing polyacrylonitrile, partly wool and cotton fiber. The fiber-dyestuff relationship is ionic.

7.2. Acid Dyes

The general formulas of acid dyes that can be written as Bm-SO3- Na + (Bm: dyestuff, colored part) contain one or more –SO3H sulfonic acid groups or –COOH carboxylic acid groups in the molecule. These dyes are used primarily for dyeing of wool, silk, polyamide, cationic modified acrylonitrile fiber, and paper, leather and nutrients. The reason why these dyes are called acid dyes is because the application is done in acidic baths and almost all of them are salts of organic acids.

7.3. Direct dyestuffs

These are usually sodium salts of sulfonic and sometimes carboxylic acids. In terms of structure, there is no definite boundary between direct and acid dyes. They are differentiated in terms of painting method. Direct dyestuffs are drawn directly from cellulose or wool to the dyestuff solution without any prior treatment (mordant). They are stored in the inner micelles of the fiber without any chemical bond. Direct dyestuffs containing basic groups in the colored part are available as zwitter ions in the aqueous solution. Its water resistance is limited.

7.4. Purple Dyestuffs

The word Mordan means the substance or composition that determines the dye to the fiber. Many natural and synthetic dyestuffs fall into this class. They contain acidic or basic functional groups and form unstable compounds with vegetable and animal fibers. For this reason, a substance (mordan), which shows the same chemical interest against both fiber and dyestuff, is first placed in the fiber. The fiber and dyestuff are then reacted to give a water-insoluble compound. Thus, the dyestuff is adhered to the fiber. Al, Sn, Fe, Cr salts that form water-insoluble hydroxides are used as mordant.

7.5. Reactive Dyes

They are dyestuffs containing reactive groups that can form real covalent bonds with functional groups in fiber structure. These dyes, which have been used in the dyeing and printing of cellulosic fibers and developed in recent years, are also used in dyeing of wool, silk and polyamide. Due to the true covalent bond they are strongly attached to the fiber. The reactive group depends on the colored part of the molecule. The common feature of all reactive dyestuffs is that they all contain a reagent and a molecule that provides solubility to the molecule, as well as the chromophore-bearing color group.

7.6. Earring Dyes

They are water-insoluble dyestuffs containing carbonyl group. These are made water-soluble by reduction and in this state they are drawn to the fiber. As a reducing agent, sodium dithionite, (Na2S2O4), air oxygen is used for oxidation. As a result of the reduction, the keto group in the dyestuff molecule turns into an enol group.

7.7. Development Dyestuffs

All dyestuffs that can be formed on the fiber and converted into its final shape fall into this class. Naftol-AS dyestuffs, also called azoic dyestuffs, and phthalocyanine dyestuffs are from this class. In these, the component with fiber affinity is first absorbed into the fiber. It is then reacted with the second component and converted into a water-insoluble dyestuff. With this process, almost all color variations are obtained.

7.8. Metal-complex Dyestuffs

Some azo dyes with certain groups and dyes formed by complex formation of metal ions. The azo group plays a role in complex formation. As a metal cation, Co, Cr, Ni ions are used. Chromium complexes are mostly used in wool, polyamide, copper complexes in cotton and leather dyeing. Light and washing fastness is high.

7.9. Dispersion Dyestuffs

They are dyes that are soluble in water and therefore can be applied as dispersions in water. The dyestuff is drawn from the dispersion medium by diffusion over hydrophobic fiber during the dyeing process. Dyeing takes place as the dye dissolves in the fiber. Dispersion dyestuffs are mainly used for dyeing polyester fiber.

7:10. Pigment dyes

Textile fiber can also be dyed with organic and inorganic pigments. More organic ones are preferred. Pigments have no fiber affinity. They do not bond and absorb chemicals. They are attached to the surface of the fiber with synthetic resins called binders. Washing and light fastnesses are particularly good in light colors. It is inconvenient that the friction fastness is not high, dark colors cannot be obtained, the binder film breaks down by air, and the binder gives the fabric stiffness.

8. CLASSIFICATION BY CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

While classifying the dyestuffs structurally, the basic structure of the molecule can be taken as the basis, and the chromogen and coloring part of the molecule can be accepted as the basis. Below is a chemical classification in which the synthesis and practical applications of dyestuffs are considered.

Accordingly, dyestuffs,

1. Azo dyes

2. Nitro and nitrozo dyestuffs

3. Dyes of polymeth

3. Arilmetin dyestuffs

4. Aza (18) annulene dyestuffs

5. Carbonyl dyes

6. Sulfur dyes

It is divided into seven groups.

8.1. Azo Dyes

The number of azo dyestuffs, which constitute the most important class of organic dyestuffs, is equal to the sum of all other dyestuffs. Apart from earrings and sulfur dyes, azo group is found in the structure of dyes used in all other dyeing methods. These are characterized by the azo group, which is the chromophore group in their structure. Nitrogen atoms in this group are connected to carbon atoms by sp2 hybridization. One of the carbon atoms attached to the azo group can be an aromatic (benzene, naphthalene and derivatives) or heterocyclic ring, and the other can be an enolizable aliphatic chain. Therefore, there is at least one aryl group in the molecule.

Color intensities of azoboyants containing aliphatic group are low. The shades have a wide spectrum. Fastness properties are also different. None of the natural dyes are found in the azo group. All of these grade dyestuffs can be obtained synthetically. They are defined as mono-, dis-, tris-, tetrakis- ... azo dyes according to the azo group in the molecule. Those containing the Azo group of three or more are also called polyazo dyes.

8.2. Obtaining Azo Dyes

In the fabrication of azo dyes, two main methods can be applied. One of them is the synthesis with the compounds containing azo group, the other is based on the formation of the azo group. These syntheses are carried out by applying different methods, as described below.

Synthesis methods based on the creation of the Azo group:

1. The coupling reaction

2. Addition of nitro compounds to amines

3. Reduction of nitro compounds

4. Oxidation of amino compounds

Synthesis methods with compounds containing azo group:

1. Opening protected amino groups

2. Acylation of amino azo compounds

Acyllation or alkylation of phenolic hydroxy groups

4.Metal-complex creation

The most important of the methods given above is the coupling reaction. Methods other than this are only used in cases where azo clamping is not possible.

8.3. Azo Clamping

The coupling reaction to form the azo group is also called azo coupling. This reaction is caused by the interaction of a diazonium salt formed from an aromatic primary amine with the aromatic coupling component carrying a substituent such as -OH, -NH2, NH (R). According to the above definition, synthesis takes place in two stages as diazolation and interlocking.

8.3.1. Diazoization reaction

The diazolation starting material is an aromatic primary amine. This substance is reacted with NaNO2 at 0 ° C inorganic acid in aqueous solution to obtain the diazonium salt.

8.3.2. Docking reaction

It occurs by the reaction of all azo dyes with a diazo compound and an chelating component. Diazonium salts formed during diazoation act as an electrophilic substituent. The docking component is a nucleophile substrate. The reaction proceeds according to the SN2 mechanism. We can also compare the mechanism of the diazo coupling reaction to an aromatic substitution reaction. Since diazonium ions are rather weak electrolytic reagents, they react only with aromatic compounds carrying electron-donor substituents such as –OH, -NH2, NHR etc. Such compounds are used as chelating components.

8.4. Nomenclature and Classification of Azo Dyes

In order to name and symbolize azo dyestuffs, the starting materials used in their production are collected in 5 main groups, which are indicated by letters in the figure below.

1. Diazoable primary amine

2. Tetrazolable diamine

3. Clamping component

4. A primary aromatic amine in the form of an amino azo compound that can be diazolated and clamped for the second time

5. Clamping component equivalent to two or more diazonium compounds

These letters are very suitable for showing and differentiating the different types of azo dyes when used with arrows. For example, the nonazo dye obtained from an amine and a chelating component is shown as AE. Each colorant can likewise be shown more clearly by the traditional names of the starting materials: such as Aniline B-naphthol. Arrows are also numbered to indicate the order of interlocking in polyazo dyes. In addition, the acidity or basicity of the clamping medium is indicated.

8.5. Classification of Azo Dyes by the Number of Azo Groups in the Molecule

8.5.1. Monoazo dyes

All of the dyestuffs that can be symbolized as AE are from this class. Diazo and clamping components are subdivided according to different types. There are about 35 dyestuffs registered in Index in this group. A bright red-colored Azo Geranine 2G substance can be given as an option to this class.

8.5.2. Diazo dyestuffs:

There are three different types of diazo dyestuffs. A) Two diazo compounds are clamped with a chelating component with two functional groups. An example is Naptalene Black 12B. B) With tetrazoanable D, they are obtained from the reaction of two different chelating components equivalent to a single diazo compound. As an example, we can show Chlorazol Bordeaux B dye. C) It is obtained from the reaction of a primary amine, which can be diazoated a second time in the form of an aminazo compound, with another primary amine and chelating component. We can cite the CI Dispers Orange 13 dyestuff as an example.

8.5.3. Triazo dyes

CI Direck Brown 1A, which is obtained by first clamping the tetrazoated benzidine with an equivalent salicylic acid, and then the coupling of the diazosulfanilic acid with the m-tolylene diamine, with an equivalent of the m-tolylene diamine.

As an example of such dyestuffs, we can give the example of Direct Brown 46 dyestuff.

An example of such dyes is CI Direct Blue 71.

8.5.4. Tetrakiazo dyes

As the number of azo groups in its molecule increases, it becomes more difficult to obtain dyestuff in pure form. This difficulty is partly due to the fact that interlocking occurs in more than one place and partly due to diazo decay at all levels.

8.6. Classification of Azo Dyes by Field of Application

1. Anionic azo dyes

2. Cationic azo dyes

3. Azoic dyes

4. Dispersion azo dyes

5. Pigment azo dyes

6. a-) Azo dyestuffs dissolved in hydrophobic solvents

b-) Azo dyestuffs dissolved in oils

They are the most members of the anionic structure azo dyes.

8.6.1. Anionic azo dyes

All dyes that carry an anionic group depending on its molecule are called anionic dyes. In this class, which contains a large number of dyestuffs, azo-, anthraquinone, trimethane- and nitro- groups are encountered as the group giving color. Hydrophilic substituent, which provides anionic character to the dyestuff molecule, is a sulfonic acid group. It may rarely be a carboxylic acid group. In addition, those with acid dyes that can form complexes with metal cations are known as 'chromium dyes' and 'metal complex dyes'. Dyes containing anionic azo group are divided into five subclasses.

a) Acid dyes

b) Chrome dyes

c) Metal-complex dyestuffs

d) Direct dyestuffs

e) Reactive dyestuffs

8.6.2. Cationic azo dyes

The load-bearing dyestuffs in their molecules are called 'cationic dyestuffs' or 'basic dyestuffs'. The chemical structures of these dyes are di and triaryl carbonyum and their analogues. In the structure of cationic azo dyes, there is usually ammonium cation as a (+) charged group.

8.6.3. Azoic dyes

Azoic dyestuffs that are synthesized on fiber and converted to final form were first applied to cotton material by Thomas and Robert Holliday in 1880. In their first attempt, they produced a chelating reaction with benzene diazonium chloride on sodium-2-naphthol impregnated fiber to obtain the colored benzene azo-2-naphthol compound. However, sodium-2-naphthol's low reactivity to cellulosic fibers and its ability to migrate easily caused wavy dyeing. Appropriate new compounds were found as a result of researches to overcome these difficulties and to improve this method. The first one is 2,3-hydroxy naphthoic acid-aryl amide and is named as Naftol AS. Therefore, the chelating components impregnated with fiber in azoic dyes are called 'naphthols'.

8.6.4. Dispersion azo dyes

Dispersion dyestuffs that can dye acetate silk with all synthetic fibers are insoluble in the usual sense. The dyeing of the fiber is done in aqueous suspensions of the dye. Since they are not completely insoluble, such as pigment dyes, they are present in trace amounts in the bath during dyeing. When the dye is drawn from the fiber side, the same amount of dye passes from the dispersion to the solution again. This event continues throughout the painting process. These small solubility of these dyes in water is due to the presence of groups such as –OH or –NH2 in their molecules that are non-ionic but can interact with water. 60% of dispersion dyes are azo and 25% are anthraquinone compounds. The yellow, red and orange ones are azobenzene derivatives. In recent years, the use of heterocyclic compounds as diazo and chelating components has gained great importance in the synthesis of dispersion dyestuffs. 2-aminothiazoles and 2-aminobenztiazoles are used as electrolytic reagents. According to their structure, we can classify the dispersion azo dyes as follows.

1. Monoazo dispersion dyestuffs

2. Disazo dispersion dyes

8.6.5. Azo pigment dyes

Organic dyes of pigment dyes, one of the three classes of water-insoluble dyestuffs, fall into several chemical classes. For example, the main yellow, orange, red and brown ones are in azo structure. The blue, purple and green tones are phthalocyan and anthraquinone dyes. Most Azo pigments contain an azo group. The pigment containing more than two azo groups is unknown.

8.6.6. Solvent dyes

Some of the water-insoluble dyestuffs are also called solvent dyestuffs. These are divided into two main classes: soluble in hydrocarbon and other low polar solvents and soluble in polar solvents. Although the first is called fat and wax, and the second is the soluble in alcohol and ester, there is no difference in structure. In terms of chemical structure, it is in different classes such as azo, azo metal-duplex, triaryl-methane, anthraquinone. The azo structures of these are simple components and are yellow orange and red.

9. NITRO AND NITROSO DYESTUFFS

This class of dyestuffs contains a nitro or nitroso group and an electroconductor group in their chemical structure. In this group of dyestuffs that are important in the technique, the nitro or nitroso group and the electronor group are located in the ortho position compared to each other.

9.1. Nitroso Dyestuffs

If phenols or naphthols are treated with HNO2, they are nitrosed. Nitroso compounds are often used in the synthesis of other dyestuffs. None of them have a dyestuff feature alone. Ortho-nitroso compounds have a complex forming character. The complexes they form with heavy metal salts show dye material.

9.2. Nitro Dyes

Those of technical importance are those that contain an electro-transformer group on site. We can collect it under five main headings.

1. Hydroxy-nitro dyes

2. Amino-nitro dyes

3. Azo-nitro dyes

4. Anthraquinone-nitro dyes

5. Biological active-nitro dyes

10. POLYME DYESTUFFS

The dyes of the polymeth constitute a large group in colored compounds. The first discovered polyimide dye is the cyanine obtained by linking two quinoline rings of G. Williams with a group of text in 4,4'-places. Although the fastness properties of this blue dye are weak, its sensitivity to light was discovered by Vogel in 1875. The optical properties of the dyes of the polyimeter vary widely due to the variety of their structural differences. Due to the wide selection possibilities of heterocyclic groups, the length of the polymetin chain and the types of substituents, a detailed definition in the synthesis of these dyes is impossible. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. On the other hand, a few of their analogs have significant fastnesses. The most important use of dyes of polymeth is that they are used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. With the exception of a few oxonol dyes, most of the known sensitizers are either cyanines or merocyanins. In color photography, a method similar to the perception of the human eye by adding only three basic colors in different proportions is applied. Based on this, a full image is obtained by copying an object illuminated with white light to the film at the rates it passes and reflects blue, red and green rays. are either cyanines or merocyanins. In color photography, a method similar to the perception of the human eye by adding only three basic colors in different proportions is applied. Based on this, a full image is obtained by copying an object illuminated with white light to the film at the rates it passes and reflects blue, red and green rays. are either cyanines or merocyanins. In color photography, a method similar to the perception of the human eye by adding only three basic colors in different proportions is applied. Based on this, a full image is obtained by copying an object illuminated with white light to the film at the rates it passes and reflects blue, red and green rays.

11. ARILMET'S DYESTUFFS AND LESS ANALOGS

In this section, the arylmetin and poly (aza) text dyestuffs with general formulas Ar-X = Ar will be examined. In this formula, X may be in the form of -CH = or -N =.

11.1. Triphenylmethane dyes:

Considering all chromophore, we can divide such dyes into two classes, T-chromophore and Y-chromophore. Those with T-chromophores can be called malachite green type, and those with Y-chromophores can be called crystal violet type.

11.2. Diphenyl Dyes

Salts of substituted bis (aminophenylmethanol), dianinobenzhydrol and substituted benzophenonimines are diphenylmethane dyes. Michler Hydrol is produced by reducing Michler ketone with metallic Zn. In the synthesis of triphenylmethane dyes, Michler Hydrol and similar compounds appear as intermediates.

11.3. Acridine, Xanthene, Fluorene Dyes

Acridine dyestuffs are compounds that result from the formation of a new ring by bonding a nitrogen atom between the two rings in the di- and triphenylmethane dyestuffs. We can give examples of Acridin Orange and Acridin Gelb dyestuffs for acridine dyestuffs. The washing fastness of these dyes, which are generally yellow in color, is good, but the light fastness is low.

Xanthene dyes are also formed by ring closure as a result of oxygen bonding to two benzene rings in di- and triphenylmethane dyes.

In fluorene dyes, the two benzene rings are directly bonded without a hetero atom. Fluorenes, which are mostly dark purple, are colorless in vacuo, whereas green in air. Its colorful shape is reduced to dithionite and a colorless leuko compound and is restored in air.

11.4. Dyes of quinine

The anologists of arylmetin dyestuffs are divided into the classes of quinone, azine, oxazin and thiazin. The quinine dyes cannot be used for dyeing in textiles. Because they are easily degraded. These compounds can be used mostly as indicators or in color photography.

11.5. Azin, Oxazin and Thiazine Dyes

Azines carry the group -NR-, oxazines -O- and thiazines -S- as Z group. As an example of oxazin type dyestuffs, we can give gallocyanine. Typical example of thiazine dyes is methylene blue.

SURVIVAL (18) ANNULEN DYESTUFFS

This dyestuff class has a cyclic colorant structure containing 18 pi electrons and conjugated double bonds. As the most important of the annulene (18) type dyestuffs, we can give dyestuffs of blood and green leaves and phthalocyanine dyestuffs. It is a dye that gives red color of red blood cells. It consists of red colored Hem and a protein component, globin. Chlorophyll is a compound similar to the blood dye in terms of structure found in the green leaves of plants.

13. CARBONYL DYESTUFFS

Conjugated double bonds in the molecular structure and the compounds containing at least two carbonyl groups in conjugated state are called 'carbonyl dyes'. It is divided into two sub-classes: indigo and anthraquinone. All indigo dyes are derived from blue indigo dyes from natural sources. Anthraquinone, which has the basic structure of carbonyl dyes, is slightly yellow in color. Ionic carbonyl dyestuffs are mainly anthracoid and carry one or more water-soluble ionic groups. Examples of cationic group-bearing carbonyl dyes are Sandocryl dyes, the trialkylhydrazinium compound.

14. SULFUR DYESTUFFS

Sulfur dyes are colored water-insoluble, macromolecular colored organic compounds formed by the reaction of aromatic amines, phenols, sulfur and sodium sulfur or sodium polysulfide. It can be symbolized as Bm-SS-Bm. Sulfur dyes were obtained for the first time by heating cellulose organic waste materials with sulfur substances.

14.1. Dry Process Sulfur Dyes

It is suggested that most of these class dyestuffs contain thiazole rings from researchers' reviews.

2.14. Solvent Processed Sulfur Dyes

In these dyes, indefenol and its derivatives are used as starting materials. Indoanilines are also used.

14.3. Usage Area of ​​Sulfur and Dyestuffs

It is generally preferred in cotton dyeing because of its cheap prices and the simplicity of the application method. It is especially used for painting cheap materials. Sulfur dyes are used to dye cotton in medium and dark shades. The shades are mostly dull. Wet fastnesses are good, light fastnesses are satisfactory.

15. WOOL DYEING METHODS WITH NATURAL DYES

There are three different methods depending on the chemical structure of the dye contained in the plant used in wool dyeing with natural dyes.

15.1. Direct Painting

Direct dyes directly dyes wool without the effect of purple and cubing. For example, the juglon contained in walnut shell and leaves dyes wool directly, without any auxiliary chemical effects. This is the combination of wool and dyestuff in aqueous solution with the effect of time and temperature. In this dyeing method, if the dyestuff contains basic groups, they react with the acid groups of the protein fiber, if the dyestuff contains acidic groups, they react with the basic groups of the protein fiber. As a result, the dyestuff is bonded by forming chemical bonds with the fiber.

15.2. Mordanlı Paint Materials and Painting Methods

The vast majority of natural dyes form dyes from purple. These dyes do not bond directly or spontaneously with the fiber or, even if they do, do not give good results. For this, an intermediate substance is required to ensure or strengthen the binding of such dyes. Such substances are called 'mordan'. Mordan acts as a bond between the wool yarn and the dye.

15.3. Fuchsin Red

Fuchsin, which was obtained in its laboratory in London in 1858 and produced in industrial dimensions in 1863, is one of the oldest synthetic dyes and has all the disadvantages of the first aniline dyes. This dyestuff has no light or washing fastnesses.

15.4. Yellow Color Dyestuffs

Although the dyestuff plants in which red and blue colors are obtained are in Anatolia, the number of plants from which yellow color is obtained is more than 20.

15.4.1. Fiset

It is a dye in yellow, orange-yellow to brown-yellow colors. It is found only in the painter's suma.

15.4.2. luteolin

Luteolin, with alum mordan, gives a strong, clear, pure yellow color that fades slightly under the influence of light, but retains the remaining color intensity for a long time. The budgerigar contains luteolin in its entire plant and has been used as a dye plant since ancient times.

15.5. Safflower Red

Safflower was grown to produce oil from its flowers in Anatolia, but there is no evidence that this plant was used in red dyeing, since carthamin was never found in the analyzes. Painting with Carthamin is a very complex process that can only be achieved by special painters.

15.6. Safflower Plant

False saffron is a 1-2 year hairless plant from the compositae family. Dried petals are used in the dyeing process. These leaves contain safflower and red carthamin, which have not yet been chemically defined. It is obtained by thoroughly soaking the safflower crown leaves in water and subsequently staining with alum mordan. The extraction of safflower red takes place in a complex process.

15.7. Lacquer Red

Several species of lacquer beetles are common in South and Southeast Asia. Lac, which has a colored component of lacid acid, is also referred to as lac, lac, luk, and luk in various sources.

15.8. Kermes Red

One of the most important insect dyestuffs, known as the colored component of the kermes acid, has been found in the analysis of the Anatolian carpets until today, although some sources state that the kermes were once used in carpets. When the female insect that gives the red dye completes its development, it has a global structure. Kermesin was used only as a medicine in the old times, being limited to dyeing.

15.9. Insect Dyes

There are two basic types of dyes obtained from animals, shellfish species and insects in the sea. These dyes, obtained in shades of red or purple, were particularly successful in fibers of animal origin.

16. APPLICATION AREAS OF DYING MATERIALS AND DYEING METHODS

16.1. Purple Dyes

Purple dyes form coordination compounds for fibers with metal cations called purple. These compounds are metal complexes called water-insoluble lacquers. Washing fastness is very high since they do not dissolve in water. It can be used from purple to bond the dye to the fiber securely. For example KAI (SO4) 2. 12H2O; K2Cr2O7; SnCl2. 2H2O; Pb (CH3COO) 22H2O. Purple dyes are chemically azo; Anthraquinone; They contain dyestuffs in triphenylmethane structures. Alizarin is naturally present in some plants and has been obtained synthetically.

16.2. Mordant and Painting Methods

Pre-bruising method: In this method, the fiber is boiled for a while with the specified mordant solutions, dried without washing, and then dyed with the appropriate dyestuff.

Mordant method together: Mordant, fiber and dyestuff are added to the same bath. The cod and the dyestuff are drawn on the fiber, so the lacquer is in the same bath.

The last bruising method: The fiber is first dyed with dyestuffs as acidic dyestuffs, then it is formed by treating with mordant.

The best results are obtained with the pre-bruising method.

16.3. Moring and Dyeing of Wool Fiber

In the mordaning of the wool, it is boiled with the wool from the wool and taken to the fiber. Aluminum salts are most often used as mordant in painting applications. AI2 (SO4) as aluminum salt 3. 18H2O or KAI (SO4) 2. 12H2O (screed) is used. In neutral or acidic environment, carboxyl groups in the wool form bonds with aluminum ions. Reducing substances such as oxalic acid and lactic acid added in the moring bath take metal ions from the wool due to the effect of chelation, and give them to the solution. Thus, they facilitate migration and ensure proper mordanation. Mordant wool is dried and the cod is well penetrated into the fiber, then boiled with dyestuff solution to be dyed.

16.4. Moring and Dyeing of Cotton Fiber

Moring of cotton is different from wool. As the cotton has little interest in dyeing, dyeing operations are done in basic environment to increase its interest. Cellulose becomes more nucleophile in basic medium. Different methods are used in the mordanning of cotton. Cotton fabric can be mordanized with Turkish Red Oil before metal mordan. Turkish Red Oil is a complex of sodium and ammonium, which is formed by many unreacted molecules. We can say that Al2 (SO4) (OH) 2 and AI2 (SO4) 3 (OH) 6 are used as purple in cotton. Acetate derivatives are used for printing. Acetate derivatives are preferred for dyeing. The dyeing mechanism is the same as in wool.

16.5. Dyestuff Fastness

Fastness is the degree of resistance of a textile material against various factors encountered during production and use. Fastnesses desired during use are light, washing, rubbing, sea water, sweat and iron fastnesses. Different fastness determinations cause problems between countries. In our country, TSE regulates the test methods. Fastness assessment is evaluated over light fastness 8 and other fastness 5. In the light fastness, it is listed as 8 extraordinary, 7 perfect, 6 very good.

16.6. Dyeing Methods in Textile Industry

16.6.1. Choosing suitable dyestuffs

Generally, the dyeing of the textile material in a certain color is possible with various dyestuffs in various groups. Choosing the appropriate dyestuffs depends primarily on the desired fastness conditions and cost. For example, a yarn to be bleached after dyeing must be dyed with a dye resistant to bleaching conditions. The wool to be rested should be dyed with dyes that are resistant to the conditions of rest, and the wool to be carbonized to be resistant to carbonization conditions. The dye to be used for dyeing a fabric to be used as a seat face is not necessarily to show good washing fastness, but it should show good light fastness. In addition to their fastness and cost, they play a role in the selection of dyestuff to be used in other factors in other cases. For example, the nuance desired to be obtained may not be present in paint groups. Especially, there are not many options in vibrant, fiery tones. Getting a proper dyeing depends on the type of dyestuff used and the shape of the material to be dyed. It is necessary to paint the material, which is difficult to paint properly, with a dyestuff that has high dyeing ability.

16.6.2. Paint recipes

Mostly dyeings are done according to the recipes at hand. What should not be forgotten, these prescriptions are not absolute. That is, it does not mean that when the quantities there are used and the conditions are applied, the first hue will be obtained. The painting results depend not only on the dyestuff used, but also on the type and shape of the material to be dyed, as well as on the dyeing device and method used. When sending a material, an example is given from what color tone is desired. The painter looks at this example and chooses the most suitable dye, and if necessary starts dyeing by adding the nuance dye to it. By comparing the material dyed for a while with the sample in hand, he finds the result well, and continues painting, or intends to be a little more nuanced or lighter. It is the addition of dyestuff or auxiliary material in accordance with the dyeing liquor to ensure that the dyeing applied conforms to the sample at hand. Many gray, brown, beige, khaki, tobacco, zentuni etc. in wool dyeing. Colors like are obtained by mixing red, blue and yellow colors. In this way, all shades can be obtained and it is a great advantage that there is no need to have a large amount of dyestuff in the warehouse. When the same painting content is examined under different lights, individual color shades can be seen. Color controls for him are done in a neutral and constant light all day long. In large factories, color controls are carried out with the help of optical devices called 'spectromat'. It is obtained by mixing blue and yellow colors. In this way, all shades can be obtained and it is a great advantage that there is no need to have a large amount of dyestuff in the warehouse. When the same painting content is examined under different lights, individual color shades can be seen. Color controls for him are done in a neutral and constant light all day long. In large factories, color controls are carried out with the help of optical devices called 'spectromat'. It is obtained by mixing blue and yellow colors. In this way, all shades can be obtained and it is a great advantage that there is no need to have a large amount of dyestuff in the warehouse. When the same painting content is examined under different lights, individual color shades can be seen. Color controls for him are done in a neutral and constant light all day long. In large factories, color controls are carried out with the help of optical devices called 'spectromat'.

16.7. Usage Areas of Dyestuffs

Sulfur dyes are preferred in cotton dyeing because of their cheap prices and the simplicity of the application method. It is especially used for painting cheap materials. Sulfur dyes are used to dye cotton in medium and dark shades. The shades are mostly dull. A class of water-soluble dyestuffs known as phthalocyanines has been created by sulfouring Cu-phthalocyanines. They are used as disulfonic acid sodium salts as a supplementary dyestuff against cellulose. Phthalocyanine dyestuffs are also used as textile development dyestuffs. Ftalogen dyestuffs are used for dyeing and printing. Almost 90% of phthalocyanines are used as pigment dyestuff. Printing inks, lacquers emulsion paints as pigment dyes, used in plastic paper and leather painting. It is also applied in textile printing. It is also used for metal surfaces (auto paints) by dissolving in organic solvents. Dyes of polymeth are used in color photography. The most important use of dyes of polymeth is that they are used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. They are basic dyestuffs that are used for polyacrylonitrile fibers in cyanine structure and hemicyanine structure, but have low light fastnesses. Dyeing with substituted dyestuffs can be done cheaply and simply, so it is widely used in dyeing cellulose fibers. It is also used for metal surfaces (auto paints) by dissolving in organic solvents. Dyes of polymeth are used in color photography. The most important use of dyes of polymeth is that they are used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. They are basic dyestuffs that are used for polyacrylonitrile fibers in cyanine structure and hemicyanine structure, but have low light fastnesses. Dyeing with substituted dyestuffs can be done cheaply and simply, so it is widely used in dyeing cellulose fibers. It is also used for metal surfaces (auto paints) by dissolving in organic solvents. Dyes of polymeth are used in color photography. The most important use of dyes of polymeth is that they are used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. They are basic dyestuffs that are used for polyacrylonitrile fibers in cyanine structure and hemicyanine structure, but have low light fastnesses. Dyeing with substituted dyestuffs can be done cheaply and simply, so it is widely used in dyeing cellulose fibers. It is used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. They are basic dyestuffs that are used for polyacrylonitrile fibers in cyanine structure and hemicyanine structure, but have low light fastnesses. Dyeing with substituted dyestuffs can be done cheaply and simply, so it is widely used in dyeing cellulose fibers. It is used as a light sensor in electrophotographic film copy processes. The use of polymethane dyestuffs in dyeing textile materials is limited to very weak light fastnesses. They are basic dyestuffs that are used for polyacrylonitrile fibers in cyanine structure and hemicyanine structure, but have low light fastnesses. Dyeing with substituted dyestuffs can be done cheaply and simply, so it is widely used in dyeing cellulose fibers.